Although many educators are familiar with a suggested 3:1 or 4:1 praise-to-reprimand ratio (PRR), relatively little research has been conducted on this subject. Three years of data collected across three states in the United States, from 19 elementary schools and 151 classrooms, during a multi-site efficacy trial were used to analyse the effect of teachers' PRRs on their students’ on-task behaviour. Although no PRR threshold (e.g. 3:1, 4:1) was found where behaviour dramatically improved, a positive linear relationship was evident, showing that the higher the teachers' PRR, the higher the students' on-task behaviour percentage. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Developmental trajectories of aggression, prosocial behavior, and social–cognitive problem solving in emerging adolescents with clinically elevated attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms

Using structural equation modeling, we explored the relationship between practicing 5^th and 6^th grade elementary teachers’ subject matter knowledge (SMK) of the science topics they are responsible for teaching and other factors, including teaching experience (number of years teaching current grade level), science teaching self-efficacy, formal science-related professional development opportunities, college science coursework, and instructional time devoted to science. Results indicate that teaching experience and science teaching self-efficacy were predictive of participants’ science SMK; other factors only indirectly influenced science SMK through teachers’ science teaching self-efficacy. Potential reasons and implications are discussed.

Debates continue about how to teach young Latinos and other minoritized children in the US. Latinos are a compelling case because of 1) their size and 2) their paradoxical development: strong social competencies yet relatively weak academic development. A suggestion is to provide young Latinos with classroom experiences that resonate with the ways they are socialized at home, yet cultural dimensions of teaching in early education are underspecified and reliable and valid measures do not exist. We frame equitable teacher-child interactions as the combination of generic and cultural aspects, and as a way to utilize the social assets of Latinos in classrooms to amend their developmental paradox. We refine an observation protocol—the Classroom Assessment of Sociocultural Interactions (CASI)—by integrating cultural concepts from the Learning by Observing and Pitching In (LOPI) paradigm with videos of K-1 classrooms in Central Mexico, and conduct a series of psychometric analyses. We find good model fit and moderate reliability for the CASI and discuss research and practice implications to enrich developmental opportunities for Latino children across early education settings.

von Suchodoletz, A., Uka, F., & Larsen, R. A. (2015). Self-Regulation Across Different Contexts: Findings in Young Albanian Children. Early Education and Development, (ahead-of-print), 1-18.

Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., Baroody, A. E., Larsen, R. A., Curby, T. W., & Abry, T. (2015). To what extent do teacher–student interaction quality and student gender contribute to fifth graders’ engagement in mathematics learning?. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 170.

Adolescents encounter a variety of challenges and risk factors that can result in adversity or unsafe behaviors often associated with mental health problems. However, the attribute of resilience can potentially buffer the effects of such risk factors. Sports participation, a form of activity available to a large number of adolescents through school and community programs, may foster resilience. This study compared the resilience levels of adolescents who participated in sports (n = 214) with the resilience levels of peers not participating in sports (n = 62), as reported by parents. Structural equation modeling was used to answer the research questions. Adolescents who participated in youth sports had significantly higher levels of parent-reported resilience (self-regulation/responsibility, social competence, and empathy) than adolescents who did not participate. High school sports predicted higher self-regulation/responsibility, while sports sponsored by recreation facilities predicted greater empathy and social competence. Finally, results demonstrated a positive relationship between the number of sports played and increased resilience scores. Implications and limitations of this study are included.

Students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) often receive low rates of teacher praise and high rates of teacher reprimands, though they may respond more positively to praise and more negatively to reprimands than their typically developing peers. Teacher praise-to-reprimand ratios (PRRs) are associated with increased student engagement, but more research is necessary to further explore how these ratios affect student behavior, particularly for students with or at risk for EBD. Commonly 3:1 or 4:1 is recommended as a desirable PRR, but students with EBD may need higher ratios to improve their classroom behavior. In our study of 540 students and 149 teachers, we found that as teacher PRR increased the engagement of at-risk students increased, though engagement for typically developing peers did not. A PRR of approximately 9:1 was needed for students at risk for EBD to approximate the engagement levels of their typically developing peers. No effect of PRR on disruption rates was found for either student category.

Purpose: In this study, we examine: (a) the direct effect of principal leadership on teacher-student interaction quality, (b) the direct effect of teacher-student interaction quality on student mathematics achievement, and (c) the indirect effect of principal leadership on student mathematics achievement via teacher-student interaction quality. These effects are tested in schools randomized to one of two conditions—one in which teachers have been trained in the Responsive Classroom approach and the other in which teachers are using business as usual approaches. Research Design: We used a multi-group, multilevel structural equation model to test the strength of the direct and indirect relations among principals, teachers, and students at intervention versus comparison schools. This randomized controlled trial was conducted in 24 socioeconomically diverse, suburban elementary schools. Findings: In the intervention group only, results showed (a) direct effects between teachers' perception of their principal’s leadership and teaching quality; (b) direct effects between teaching quality and student mathematics achievement; and (c) indirect effects between teachers' perception of their principal's leadership and mathematics achievement. These relations were not present in the comparison schools. Conclusions and Implications for Research and Practice: The Responsive Classroom approach creates conditions in which principal leadership appears to have influence on teaching quality, and in turn, mathematics achievement. One plausible explanation is that the Responsive Classroom approach enhances interconnectedness among principals, teachers, and students.

In the United States, many teachers feel underprepared to manage student classroom behavior positively. Such management is crucial for students to learn effectively, especially those with or at risk of emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Although increasing teacher praise and decreasing teacher reprimands may be research-based practices, more empirical evidence is required for them to be considered evidence based. The current study of 65 elementary school teachers and 239 students across three states contrasted the effects of these teacher behaviors on engagement and disruptions of students who were and were not at risk of EBD. Using structural equation modeling, we examined how the engagement and disruptions of students at risk were more sensitive to teacher praise and reprimand than the behavior of their typical peers. These results support the literature and invite teachers to consider that who they praise and reprimand is just as important as how.

Open Educational Resources (OER) have the potential to replace commercial learning materials in education. An empirical examination of this potential was conducted, comparing the end-of-year mathematics test results of 12,110 elementary school students clustered within 95 schools from five school districts in the state of Washington in the United States of America. Of this group, 6796 students used open learning materials, and 5314 used commercial educational resources. When three years of test scores were considered, there were no statistically significant differences in the exam scores of students who used open versus commercial curriculum materials. The lack of statistical significance may have practical significance, demonstrating that OER can replace conventional materials without impacting student performance, while potentially reducing costs and allowing for local modification.

Tolan, Patrick H., and Ross Larsen. "Trajectories of Life Satisfaction During Middle School: Relations to Developmental‐Ecological Microsystems and Student Functioning." Journal of Research on Adolescence 24.3 (2014): 497-511.

Students with deficits in social skills have been found to experience both short- and long-term problems, including interpersonal conflicts and academic difficulties. These problems are compounded for students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD). Classwide function-related intervention teams (CW-FIT), a multitiered classroom management program, has been shown to be effective in increasing on-task behavior and decreasing disruptive behavior of students at risk for EBD. The present study examined the effects of CW-FIT on teachers’ ratings of students’ social skills, problem behaviors, and academic competence. A randomized control trial was completed with 160 elementary school teachers located in 19 schools across three states. Teachers completed rating scales on 350 students identified as at risk for EBD, for whom consent had been obtained. After being randomly assigned to treatment or control conditions, CW-FIT was implemented for approximately 4 months in treatment classrooms, after which teachers completed posttest ratings on all students. CW-FIT implementation was associated with significantly improved teacher ratings of social skills and academic competence for students at risk for EBD, but no significant changes in teacher ratings of student problem behaviors were found. Higher fidelity of CW-FIT implementation was associated with improved outcomes. Implications, limitations, and areas for future research are addressed.

Many teachers resort to using reprimands in attempts to stop disruptive student behavior, particularly by students with emotional or behavioral problems, although this may not be effective. This study examined short-term longitudinal data on teacher reprimands of 149 teachers in 19 different elementary schools across three states, as well as disruptive behavior and classroom engagement of 311 students considered at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. A cross-lag analysis showed that teacher reprimands did not decrease students’ future disruptive behavior or increase their engagement or vice versa. While teacher reprimands may suppress misbehavior momentarily, they do not appear to be effective in decreasing students’ disruptive behavior or increasing their engagement over time. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Numerous well-validated academic progress monitoring tools are used in schools, but there are fewer behavioral progress monitoring measures available. Some brief behavior rating scales have been shown to be effective in monitoring students’ progress, but most focus only on students’ social skills and do not address critical academic-related behaviors. We conducted a quasi-replication of a study by Brady, Evans, Berlin, Bunford, and Kern examining the Classroom Performance Survey (CPS) by using a multi-step analytic strategy, including confirmatory factor analysis and reliability analysis. Over a period of 3 years, 160 elementary schoolteachers in 19 schools across three states completed a modified CPS on 356 elementary students identified as at-risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. The modified CPS was found to be comprised of two factors (Academic Competence and Interpersonal Competence) and showed evidence of reliability and validity. These results suggest that the CPS shows promise as a brief behavior rating scale for progress monitoring in elementary schools.